Since 1948, over 1,000 UN personnel have been killed and more than 3,000 injured while serving in peacekeeping operations. Most of these deaths occurred in the Central African Republic (CAR), Mali, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Today, there is a more significant need for accountability to ensure peacekeepers' safety and security and prevent troop- and police-contributing countries from withdrawing or hesitating to join missions in non-permissive environments.

In Mali, the most dangerous mission for peacekeepers, the majority of fatalities have not been investigated by national authorities. Only three convictions related to the death of peacekeepers have been obtained in the past two years. Similarly, in CAR and the DRC, where 51 peacekeepers were killed in each country, investigations have led to very few suspects being brought before courts and even fewer convictions.

Using improvised explosive devices (IEDs) poses a significant threat to peacekeepers, with 643 UN staff injured or killed by IEDs since 2014. There have been limited convictions related to IED attacks against peacekeepers, with one conviction in Mali being the only one to date. However, investigating and prosecuting IED attacks is challenging due to difficulties in tracing the attacks back to specific perpetrators and the lack of specialized agents in host states.

UN missions should pursue a comprehensive approach to accountability, continue supporting national authorities, and prioritize preventing attacks on peacekeepers. The UN Secretariat should maintain a comprehensive approach to accountability, develop a standard definition of crimes against peacekeepers, ensure adherence to human rights standards when engaging with the accused, and improve coordination. UN missions should pursue a comprehensive approach to accountability, continue supporting national authorities, and prioritize the prevention of attacks on peacekeepers. The article also emphasizes the importance of balancing legal principles with policy and practical considerations and the need for political and strategic questions regarding the UN's presence in challenging contexts.

One example is the growing use of PMSCs, focusing on the Russian government-affiliated Wagner Group. The usage of private forces in civil conflicts expands, it becomes crucial to understand the impact of these mercenaries on peace operations and the effectiveness of missions in safeguarding civilians from harm. It discusses the implications of their presence in conflict zones such as the Central African Republic (CAR) and Mali.

Leaders of politically unstable states with weak security institutions often find the military capabilities promised by PMSCs like the Wagner Group appealing for consolidating power and combating insurgencies. Examples include President Faustin-Archange Touadéra of CAR, who signed a defense cooperation agreement with Russia to extend his government's influence, and interim President Assimi Goïta of Mali, who turned to Wagner forces after a coup. While PMSCs have been active in Africa for years, their recent resurgence coincides with increased contestation within the multilateral peace and security architecture, suggesting that the Russian government's use of the Wagner Group aims to undermine UN presence in those countries.

The Wagner Group in Mali and CAR pose significant challenges to protecting civilians and promoting human rights. The Wagner Group's alleged atrocities, including massacres and daily violations such as extrajudicial killings and arbitrary detention, directly threaten civilians. The Group's counterinsurgency objectives often clash with the mandates of peacekeeping missions, which strive to restore state authority while ensuring the safety and rights of the population. However, limitations on the use of force and physical protection measures against the Wagner Group hinder peacekeeping missions' ability to fulfill their PoC mandates effectively.

The unique operating model of the Wagner Group complicates missions' efforts to monitor, investigate, and attribute human rights abuses to its forces. The association between the Group and the Russian government initially made establishing command responsibility and political accountability difficult. Furthermore, limitations on missions' freedom of movement hinder their capacity to document and report human rights violations. Nevertheless, missions such as MINUSCA and OHCHR have bravely published accounts of abuses attributed to the Wagner Group, despite the risks involved.

The presence of the Wagner Group in CAR and Mali introduces new risks to the safety and security of UN peacekeepers. The Group's aggressive behavior, disregard for the inviolability of UN personnel, and limitations on freedom of movement create regular tensions between UN forces and the Wagner Group. The close proximity of the two forces poses challenges for operational coordination and deconfliction. Some troop-contributing countries have reconsidered their participation in UN missions alongside Wagner forces, which reduces the missions' effectiveness and emboldens armed groups, further endangering civilians.

Addressing the risks the Wagner Group poses requires a diplomatic approach, with a diverse coalition of states involved in international pushback. However, the ongoing international response to Russia's actions in Ukraine may overshadow concerns related to PMSCs. UN peace operations can adapt their protection of civilians strategies by advocating with host governments and security forces collaborating with the Wagner Group. Monitoring, investigating, and reporting human rights abuses remain crucial, despite limitations on missions' freedom of movement. Over time, the legal and political status of PMSCs like the Wagner Group may change, potentially opening avenues for accountability.

By understanding the implications of state-affiliated PM SCs on UN peace operations and the protection of civilians, the international community can better navigate the challenges posed by these actors in conflict zones. The article suggests several potential approaches to address the issues raised by the presence of PMSCs like the Wagner Group.

Firstly, diplomatic engagement with the Russian government regarding the Wagner Group's behavior could have a restraining effect. Countries, particularly non-Western troop-contributing nations such as Bangladesh, China, and Rwanda, play a crucial role in shaping the international response. However, the ongoing political dynamics surrounding Russia's invasion of Ukraine may overshadow the concerns related to PMSCs. It is important to foster a diverse coalition of states to address these issues effectively.

Secondly, UN peace operations should adapt their protection of civilians strategies to maximize impact. This includes engaging with host governments and their security forces working with or controlling the Wagner Group. Efforts should be made to manage the constraints and risks posed by the Group to the missions' protection activities, particularly ensuring the safety and security of personnel. Technical deconfliction and information mechanisms can be established to prevent transportation accidents and crossfire incidents. However, coordination should be carefully considered to avoid legitimizing the Wagner Group's presence.

Finally, UN peace operations must continue monitoring, investigating, and reporting human rights abuses attributed to the Wagner Group. Despite limitations on freedom of movement, these reports raise awareness about the impact of Wagner's operations on civilians and counter disinformation campaigns. In the long term, as seen in the evolving politics surrounding the Group's activities in Ukraine, the legal and political status of PMSCs can change. This may create opportunities for future efforts at accountability and justice.

In conclusion, state-affiliated PMSCs like the Wagner Group in conflict zones pose significant challenges to UN peace operations and their ability to protect civilians. Addressing these challenges requires a diplomatic approach, adaptation of protection strategies, and continued monitoring of human rights abuses. By understanding the implications and developing appropriate responses, the international community can work towards ensuring the effectiveness of peace operations and the safety of civilians caught in conflicts involving PMSCs.

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